Ever wondered what makes your cutie so fluffy? It’s not just the fur, but the skin of a cat has much to do with it as well. Let’s break down layer by layer of your cats skin to see what’s really going on under all that fur.

Layers of the skin and types of skin cells of cats

1. Epidermis: This is the outermost layer, made of mostly keratinocytes and acting as a shield against the elements. It’s like the tough outer shell of an armor. Keeping your cat safe from the sun, bacteria, and other environmental hazards. It also contains the melanocytes, which give your cat’s skin and fur color. As well as the Langerhans cells which are responsible for immune responses.
2. Dermis: Beneath the epidermis lies the dermis, the bustling hub of activity. Here, you’ll find blood vessels, nerve endings, oil glands, and hair follicles. This is where all the action happens, from sensation to temperature regulation. Blood vessels dilate to cool the cat down and constrict in cold temperatures. The dermis has receptors for pressure, pain, and heat, as well as hair follicle muscles that react to stress and cold through hormones.
3. Subcutis: Deeper still is the subcutis, where fat is stored to provide insulation and padding. It protects the bones and organs from external influences, and is also housing blood vessels.

And in case you were wondering: Cats do have sweat glands, and they sweat when they’re scared or stressed. Even though their dermis does not house as many sweat glands as for example in human skin, they make up for that on their paws. That’s why they leave little wet prints on the examination table at the vet. Unlike dogs, they usually do not pant to cool off. Only if they are very exhausted or stressed, you can exhibit this behavior as well.

Skin color in cats

When you shave a calico cat, the pattern of colored spots remains visible on the skin. This enduring visibility of color patterns is due to the presence of pigment cells in the skin called melanocytes. These cells produce melanin, the same pigment that gives color to human skin and hair. In cats, melanocytes are distributed in the skin similarly to how they are distributed in the fur. The color and pattern of your cat’s coat are determined by which genes are expressed where these melanocytes are active.

In some cats, the color of their fur is also expressed through the pigmentation of their skin. This is particularly noticeable in calico cats, where the differently colored spots are visible on the skin, much like in hairless Sphynx cats. Other than the stripes of a tabby cat that are rarely visible on the skin. The stripes are a feature of the hair itself, not the skin. This striped pattern in the individual hair is due to the agouti gene. You can learn more about it in our article on cat fur. The brightest color in cat skin is a blush pink. There is no white skin in cats because white fur lacks melanin. However, if a cat has a distinctly spotted fur pattern, these spots can be quite prominent on the skin as well, because there’s melanin present in the skin.

What functional roles does the skin play in cats?

Protection and storage

1. Barrier against harmful agents: The skin acts as a barrier, shielding your cat’s body from harmful UV rays, bacteria, and other environmental pollutants. As mentioned, the epidermis is involved in the immune system’s task to detect and fight off invasive organisms.
2. Insulation and temperature regulation: Fur serves as a natural insulator, helping to regulate your cat’s body temperature in both hot and cold conditions. Thick coats provide warmth in chilly weather, while lighter coats help keep them cool in the heat.
3. Water retention: Cats also store water in their skin, which is why, if a cat is dehydrated, you can notice her skin is missing flexibility (same goes for most mammals as well as humans and dogs).

Communication, or: do cats get goosebumps?

When cats experience stress, such as during a vet visit, they exhibit a physiological response known as piloerection. Tiny muscles at the base of each hair, called arrector pili, contract under the influence of the sympathetic nervous system. This reaction pulls the hair upright, making the cat appear larger to ward off threats. Similar to goosebumps in humans but resulting in raised fur. Concurrently, this stress induces the shedding of loosely anchored hairs in the resting phase (telogen), leading to noticeable hair loss. This makes the cat look puffier and more bristled, an intimidation tactic that, while dramatic, is perfectly normal and harmless.

Sensory perception through touch receptors

The skin is studded with touch receptors, allowing your cat to sense the world around them through touch. From grooming to play, these receptors play a vital role in your cat’s interactions with their environment.

• Merkel Discs: They are sensitive to sustained pressure and texture and are involved in the sensation of fine touch and pressure, which supports the ability to distinguish shapes and textures.
• Meissner’s Corpuscles: They are sensitive to light touch and changes in texture as well as low-frequency vibration or flutter. They are located in the dermal papillae just beneath the epidermis and contribute to the sensitivity of paws, lips, and other areas, which helps cats in exploring their environment and detecting subtle movements.
• Pacinian Corpuscles: These are sensitive to deeper pressure and high-frequency vibrations, and aid in the perception of distant or more significant impacts through surfaces like the ground. These are found in the front paws, in the skin folds around the claws and in the paw pads.

These receptors are concentrated in areas that engage most with the environment – paws, face, and whiskers.

The highest density can be found in the whisker pads, providing cats with acute sensitivity where it’s most needed. The strategic distribution of these receptors supports various behaviors such as hunting, where precision is critical, and social interactions like grooming and playful fighting.

Cats’ sensitivity ensures that they are aware of even the smallest bugs or changes in their immediate environment. Tactile information can trigger instinctive behaviors in cats. While intriguing textures can lead to exploratory scratching or rubbing, an unexpected touch might result in a jump, hiss, but at least the famous brrrp sound. You may have noticed this phenomenon yourself, as soon as you attempted to lightly touch your cat’s fur without her noticing.

We hope you enjoyed this article. Let us know what you think about it and share it with your friends!

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Cats’ coats are more than just pretty decorations – they serve important functions and are made up of different types of hair, each with its own role to play. Hair is produced in hair follicles at regular intervals. Cat fur has an outer top coat for protection and an undercoat for insulation. Shedding varies based on factors like age, breed, housing conditions, and season.

Types of hair in cat coats

1. Guard hairs: These are the longest and thickest hairs in your cat’s coat, serving as the first line of defense against the elements.
2. Awn hairs: These hairs are shorter and stiffer than guard hairs, providing additional protection and insulation.
3. Down hairs: The softest and shortest hairs in the coat, down hairs act as a cozy insulating layer, trapping heat close to the body.

Coat types – single, double, or triple coat?

Cats exhibit remarkable diversity in their coat types, influenced by a complex interplay of genetics. One notable distinction lies in the presence of single, double, or even triple coats among different breeds. Breeds with double coats, such as the Maine Coon or Norwegian Forest cat, possess an undercoat of dense, insulating fur beneath a longer outer layer of guard hairs. This double-layered structure provides enhanced protection against cold weather and moisture, making these breeds well-suited to harsh climates.

In contrast, cat breeds with single coats, like the Siamese or Abyssinian, lack the undercoat and typically have shorter, sleeker fur. Their single-layered coats require less grooming and may offer better heat dissipation, making them ideal for warmer environments. Triple-coated breeds, such as the Siberian, feature an additional layer of awn hairs between the guard and undercoat, further enhancing insulation and protection.

Growth cycle and shedding

Hair growth is commonly influenced by nutrition, hormones, and seasonal changes. Cats tend to shed most noticeably during the spring and fall, and shedding can also be triggered by shifts in temperature or sunlight. Genetics largely determine hair traits, while hormones are a key factor in promoting healthy hair growth. Just like human hair, cat fur goes through phases of growth, rest, and shedding.

• Anagen phase: This is the active growth phase, where new hair follicles form and hair grows steadily. Your cat’s coat looks lush and full during this phase.
• Catagen phase: In this transitional phase, hair growth slows down and the hair follicle shrinks.
• Telogen phase: Also known as the resting phase, no new hair growth occurs during this time. Instead, old hairs are shed to make way for new ones.

During the colder months, your cat’s coat naturally thickens to provide her with protection and warmth. If the undercoat is not regularly groomed and removed during the spring and summer months, along with proper cleaning and room for new hair growth, it can result in matting. Additionally, the majority of the hairs go into a resting phase during winter, causing excessive shedding. Cold and damp air can further contribute to matting, which is why you should carefully dry and separate the coat to prevent knots and bacterial infections.

Coat colors and patterns in your cat’s fur

Ever wondered why some cats sport stripes while others are solid? It’s all written in their genetic code.

Melanin production

At the heart of coat coloration lies melanin, the pigment responsible for hues ranging from black to orange. Melanin comes in two forms: eumelanin, responsible for black and brown colors, and pheomelanin, responsible for red and yellow colors.

Genetic determination

The genes responsible for melanin production dictate whether a cat’s coat will be predominantly black, brown, red, or somewhere in between. Eumelanin, the black-brown pigment, creates the darker hues seen in cats with black, brown, or gray coats. On the other hand, pheomelanin, the red pigment, is responsible for lighter shades such as orange, cream, and ginger. The combination of these pigments, along with other genetic factors, results in the wide array of coat colors and patterns observed in different cat breeds. White hair is usually simply hair with little to no melanin inside.

Pattern-modifier genes

In addition to genes responsible for melanin production, there are several other genes that play crucial roles in determining a cat’s coat color and pattern through breeding. One such gene is the dilution gene, which, when present in its diluted form, can lighten the intensity of both eumelanin and pheomelanin, resulting in lighter coat colors. This gene is responsible for the dilution of black to blue (gray) and red to cream in cats.

Additionally, there are genes that influence the distribution and pattern of pigmentation, such as the agouti gene, which determines whether a cat’s coat will display banded hairs (agouti) or solid coloration. Another important gene is the white spotting gene, which controls the presence and extent of white markings on a cat’s coat. This gene can lead to varying degrees of white patches, from just a few spots to large areas of white, depending on the cat’s genetic makeup.

Another truly fascinating gene is the one that’s responsible for the colorpoint coat you know from Siamese cats. It is genetically partial albinism, which depends on temperature. Where it’s warmer on the body, the coat becomes brighter! If you are interested in learning more, check out our Siamese cat breed portrait.

DNA plays a crucial role in determining not only a cat’s coat color and pattern but also its texture, length, and overall appearance. Different cat breeds have distinct genetic signatures that result in a wide range of coat variations.

Variations in coat traits

1. Texture: Some cats have soft, silky fur, while others boast a dense, plush coat. Genetic variations influence the structure of the hair follicles and the type of hair produced, leading to differences in texture.
2. Length: From short-haired breeds like the sleek Siamese cat to long-haired beauties like the majestic Maine Coon, coat length is determined by specific genes that regulate the growth cycle of hair follicles.
3. Color and Pattern: We’ve already touched on how genes control melanin production, which in turn determines a cat’s coat color and pattern. But it’s not just about black or orange – there are countless combinations and variations influenced by genetics.
4. Structure: In Bengal cats, the hair shaft has a hollow, air-filled core that refracts light, giving the fur a sparking or shimmering effect.

Examples of genetic influences

• The Ragdoll cat breed is known for its striking blue eyes and semi-long, plush fur. Specific genes control the expression of coat color and pattern in Ragdolls, resulting in their distinctive appearance.
• The Devon Rex, with its curly coat and oversized ears, carries a genetic mutation that affects hair follicle development, leading to the unique texture of its fur.
• The Bengal cat’s wild appearance is attributed to its coat pattern, which is reminiscent of a leopard’s spots. Genetic factors dictate the distribution and size of these spots, giving Bengals their exotic look.

Common coat patterns and the role chromosomes play

1. Tabby: This is perhaps the most common and recognizable coat pattern, featuring distinctive stripes, swirls, or spots. Tabby cats come in various colors, from classic brown tabbies to striking silver tabbies.
2. Tortoiseshell: Also known as torties, these cats boast a beautiful blend of black and orange patches, creating a unique mosaic-like pattern. Fun fact: most tortoiseshell cats are female! This is because the genes that determine the black and orange colors, which are variants of the eumelanin and pheomelanin pigments, are located on the X chromosome. Female cats have two X chromosomes, allowing for the expression of both colors, whereas males, having only one X chromosome, typically express only one color.
3. Calico: Similar to tortoiseshell cats, calicos sport patches of black, orange, and white fur. The key difference is that calicos have larger patches of white mixed in with their black and orange areas. Like tortoiseshells, calicos are usually female because the coloration depends on the presence of two X chromosomes. Both, Torties and Calicos genetics are referred to as mosaicism.
4. Solid colors: Some cats keep it simple with a single, solid coat color. Whether it’s sleek black, snowy white, or vibrant ginger, these cats exude elegance in their simplicity.

If you’re interested in knowing how to brush your cat’s coat properly, you can move on to our article about it next. Let us know in the comments if there’s any coat trait or pattern that you’d like us to explain in more detail!

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Why do cats have whiskers?

Cats use their whiskers to detect changes in their environment and sense nearby objects. They also help to navigate through tight spaces without visual assistance, as cats use them to measure the width of openings before deciding to slip through. These skills are particularly important for finding your way in the dark. For this and upon closer inspection of your furry friend, you’ll see that their whiskers are usually as wide as their bodies (except hairless or curly breeds). The world record of whooping 7.5 inches is held by Missi, a Maine Coon cat from Finland.²

Structure and looks of whiskers in cats

Unlike regular hair, these are thicker, stiffer, and more deeply rooted. They are deeply embedded in the cat’s skin and are connected to a muscular and nervous system which makes them the powerful sensory organs that they are. This anatomical structure allows them to detect even the subtlest disturbances in the air. Each one is tuned to detect vibrations in the environment and helps cats to determine the position of prey and recognize imminent danger.

That’s another reason to keep your cat slim – so they don’t get stuck!

Dr Leonie Richards, head of general practice at the University of Melbourne’s U-Vet Veterinary Hospital ⁷

What colors do cat whiskers have, and are there only white ones?

Cat vibrissae can vary in color, often matching or complementing the primary fur color of the cat. While white ones are common and may be the most noticeable, especially on darker cats, they can also be black, gray, or even a mix of those, depending on the individual cat’s genetics. The color can change as the cat ages, with some hairs turning gray or white.

How many whiskers do cats have and where are they?

• Muzzle: Cats boast an impressive array of these hairs, with 24 mystacial whiskers on the muzzle, 12 on each side, arranged in rows of four, serving as vital sensory tools for navigating the environment.
• Above the eyes: Additional whiskers can be found above the eyes, situated around the area akin to where humans have eyebrows, aiding in spatial awareness and depth perception.
• Chin: Descending further, you’ll discover a cluster of tiny whiskers adorning their chin. While perhaps less prominent, these play an essential role in aiding cats’ exploration and interaction with their immediate surroundings.
• Back of the legs: And finally, they even adorn the back of their legs! Yes, you read that right. They’re called carpal whiskers and provide them with information when holding prey. They need this because they can’t see well up close.³

Whiskers and cat health

A study from 2023 found a significant correlation between the presence of wavy whiskers (WW) and FeLV antigen positivity in the blood. Of the cats with WW, 89.3% were positive for FeLV. The whiskers showed narrowing, degeneration, and tearing of the innermost part of the hair, known as the medulla. This suggests that WW can be a visible external sign potentially indicating FeLV infection in cats​​.⁴

What is whisker stress or whisker fatigue?

You may have heard about switching to flat plates for your cat to alleviate so-called whisker fatigue or whisker stress when using a bowl. There is rumor which suggests that cats may experience discomfort when their sensitive whiskers continuously touch the sides of a bowl while eating. Some believe that this overstimulation can cause distress for cats.

There’s no scientific evidence for whisker stress

However, there isn’t concrete evidence supporting this claim, and it’s possible it’s just a marketing ploy to sell more plates.⁴ Cats frequently touch their own whiskers while eating from the floor, a behavior observed in nature. They groom them and enjoy being scratched around their face. For a bowl to significantly compress them in an uncomfortable manner, it would need to be exceptionally deep and rounded. When cats become stressed, they may seek refuge in tight spaces, which can again lead to constant contact with their whiskers. It’s rather unlikely that healthy cats have big issues with any of those. But if you’re unsure which bowl to pick for your fluffball, we offer an article featuring expert opinions on the best bowl design for your cat.

Vibrissae and nutrition

You won’t believe it, but scientists are able to tell what cats had for dinner just because of these hairs. Cats’ whiskers absorb stable isotopes (specific elements that don’t decay over time) from their food as they grow. Scientists can measure the ratios of isotopes in a cat’s whiskers to better understand their diet. In particular, analyzing nitrogen isotopes in the whiskers can reveal the proportion of wild animals versus food from owners in a cat’s diet. Higher levels of specific nitrogen isotopes suggest a diet richer in wild animals, helping researchers gain insight into a cat’s eating habits over time.⁶

Whiskers and emotions in cats

The alignment of the whiskers adapts to the cat’s feelings – hanging relaxed at the sides, the cat is usually neutral to curious. When pointing forward, that usually means a cat goes into attack mode. This can happen in play or in hunt and is usually seen right before a pounce towards prey or a toy. This forward positioning prepares the cat to make precise movements. If whiskers are pulled back against the face or stand errected to the sides, this signals fear or aggression.⁷

The growth cycle of whiskers or do cats shed whiskers?

Yes, they do. Sometimes you’ll be able to find a complete tactile hair at the place your cat shed it, but worry not, this is totally normal. Only if it becomes frequent or you see whiskers getting wavy or break often, you should go ot a vet checkup.

We hope you enjoyed these facts about the important sensory helper of our beloved four legged friends. Found something cool? Don’t forget to share it with your friends.

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Overview of cat eyes

Basic parts

The basic components of a cat’s eye are much like ours:

• Cornea: The clear, protective outer layer that helps focus incoming light.
• Lens: Adjusts focus, allowing the eye to see details at different distances.
• Retina: It forms images at its light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye.
• Iris: The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil.
• Pupil: The opening that regulates the amount of light that enters the eye.

However, the magic happens in the layers of the eye, particularly the retina, where specialized cells called rods and cones reside. Cats have a remarkably high rod-to-cone ratio, enabling them to see in low light but with less color detail compared to humans.¹

Unique features that set cat eyes apart

1. Slit pupils

One of the most striking features of cat eyes is their slit-shaped pupils, which can expand dramatically in low light or contract to a thin slit in brightness. This ability provides a crucial adaptive advantage by precisely controlling light intake, enhancing their vision in various lighting conditions. In contrast, big cats like lions, which are not strictly nocturnal, tend to have round pupils similar to humans.^2,3

A surprising thing we noticed from this study is that the slit pupils were linked to predators that were close to the ground. So domestic cats have vertical slits, but bigger cats, like tigers and lions, don’t. Their pupils are round, like humans and dogs.

Dr William Sprague from the University of California, Berkeley

2. Tapetum lucidum

Behind the retina lies the tapetum lucidum, a layer of tissue that reflects light back through the retina, effectively doubling the light available to the cat’s photoreceptors. This is what gives cat eyes their characteristic glow in the dark and significantly boosts their night vision. The interplay between the tapetum lucidum and pupil dilation is a key factor in their ability to see in the dark.²

3. Color vision

Contrary to the common myth, cats do not see in mere black and white. Instead, their color vision is just limited compared to humans’. They can see shades of blue and green, but reds and pinks may appear more greenish, and purple can look like another shade of blue. This vision setup is perfectly tailored for hunting in dim light or at night.⁴

4. Field of view and depth perception

Cats have a wider field of view – about 200 degrees, compared to humans’ 180 degrees – allowing them to detect slight movements across a broad area, which is crucial for spotting prey. Their binocular vision and depth perception are finely tuned for calculating distances in hunting scenarios.^1,3

5. Major iridal vessels

If you’ve ever noticed a prominent vein on the outer edge of a cat’s iris, that’s the major iridal vessel. It’s essential for delivering nutrients and oxygen to the eye’s components, highlighting the eye’s complex vascular system that supports intense physiological functions.

6. Evolutionary adaptations

Cats’ eyes have evolved not just for nocturnal hunting but for peak performance during dusk and dawn, when many of their prey are active. The evolutionary design of their eyes shares similarities with other nocturnal creatures, yet it is finely honed to their particular predatory habits and environmental interactions.³

Cat eyes are mesmerizing to look at and are complex optical systems evolved to support survival through superb night vision, a wide field of view, and sharp depth perception. Next time a cat gives you the look, remember you’re peering into a sophisticated biological phenomenon honed by millions of years of evolution. It’s just another reason to be fascinated by our most favorite creatures in the world.

If you want to know more about cats’ anatomy, check out our overview. And definitely let us know in the comments what you would love to know about the anatomy of cats!

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What kind of meat is used in the production of cat food?

The manufacturing processes vary depending on the type of cat food but can generally be divided into similar steps. In the industry, production typically involves using various meat and by-products, often from less premium sources. Instead of using exclusively whole meat pieces, manufacturers often incorporate meat by-products such as carcasses and Mechanically Separated Meat (MSM). However, this doesn’t necessarily mean inferior quality. Firstly, meat for many types of feed is pureed, making the original form of the meat less relevant. Additionally, cats have barbs on their tongues allowing them to effectively scrape meat from bones. They also consume prey with skin and bones in the wild. The issue arises when manufacturers solely rely on these cheaper forms of meat.

Higher-quality parts of an animal contain different or more nutrients, essential for a balanced diet. Unfortunately, relying solely on the manufacturer’s declaration, which often lacks detailed ingredient lists, is common. Only with ragout varieties can one be certain of the parts used, as they are often merely sliced and maintain their original form. The individual ingredients are also visible in the finished product. Dynasty’s ragout cat food is an excellent example where all components, from meat to chicken hearts or vegetable parts, are recognizable.

The temptation to use cheap ingredients is high.

In the production of pâté or mousse, cat food manufacturers often utilize production leftovers such as meat and fish scraps from human food production. These are inexpensive as they cannot be processed elsewhere and would otherwise require costly disposal. However, these unwanted by-products may encompass a variety of different animal sources, not necessarily meeting human consumption standards.

On the other hand, better ingredients include genuine fillet or muscle meat, as well as high-quality organs like heart and liver. These are considered high-quality organs due to their high concentration of essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and enzymes. While using them allows for more of the animal to be processed, which is generally positive, it also tempts manufacturers to save on disposal costs by incorporating parts that don’t belong in the production.

The processing of wet cat food

The process of manufacturing cat food begins with mechanically grinding and mixing the meat and by-products. This mixture can also be blended with other ingredients such as grains, vegetables, and binders to achieve the desired consistency and composition.

In extreme cases, this mass is further liquefied and later thickened back into a form. This often results in meat cubes in sauce, which, however, have nothing in common with meat properties anymore.

To sell a complete food, manufacturers must comply with various EU regulations regarding nutrient composition for cat food. These regulations are issued by FEDIAF, the European Pet Food Industry Federation, as guidelines within the EU. Almost all major manufacturers belong to this federation and adhere to the guidelines. During production, the nutrient levels of the individual ingredients, including vitamins and minerals, are calculated through laboratory analysis and extrapolation. The calculated difference to the FEDIAF guideline is then added to the food in the form of a pre-mixed nutrient mix powder (also called premix) during production.

Ragout – newer and more elaborate production of cat food

While ragout is the best form of cat food after Barf, it’s also significantly more expensive than conventional forms, provided the manufacturer does it right. Here, whole pieces of meat and vegetables are processed, sometimes even whole chicken hearts. You can easily recognize the individual parts in a ragout feed. To make a ragout a complete feed, it requires the same additives specified by FEDIAF, such as taurine, vitamins, and minerals. Often, only a portion of the meat is minced and pressed into a sausage (similar to a butcher), incorporating the nutrients. It’s like a coarse sausage without casing. This is then sliced and added to the can.

The different shapes and sizes of meat, sausage, and vegetables make production extremely difficult. Manufacturers require multiple production lines and machines for this type of food. In filling, heavy parts sink to the bottom, while light parts float to the top. Proper mixing in the feed is therefore very demanding and can lead to fluctuations. Many well-known industrially filled ragout brands have this problem. Some are extremely watery, others contain too many vegetables or too many hearts, some cans hardly have any. These challenges often lead smaller providers to manual filling, further increasing production costs.

Production of minced cat food – Pâté and Mousse

With meat pâté-based feed, the process is comparatively simple. Unlike ragout, everything is mixed together, pureed, and filled. This results in a meat paste that is easy to handle and fill. However, to bind this meat paste during cooking into a homogeneous mass, auxiliary substances such as thickeners or binders must be used in production. These ensure that the liquid contained in the paste remains there and a chewable consistency is guaranteed. Lucky Kitty is a manufacturer that avoids these substances, which, though commendable, leads to a very firm lump of meat forming in the middle of the can, separating from the water.

The different designations of cat food such as minced or pâté correspond in production to the fineness of the feed. A pâté is very fine, almost smooth, and no longer resembles the consistency of meat. Minced feed is somewhat coarser and rather reminiscent of ground meat. Wet food in mousse form has a light, airy consistency and in some ways resembles human foods like mousse or pudding. It has a particularly soft texture but is also processed accordingly heavily.

A special form of production is the aforementioned chunks in sauce, which are not real meat chunks but pressed meat paste in cube form, resembling a meat cube. As you can imagine, these cubes are also processed with additives to maintain their shape. By the way, these substances are often not subject to declaration requirements. You won’t find this information on the label of the can.

The cooking process of wet food

A meat paste feed is cooked in large batches after mixing. The cooking process for ragout is similar, except that the ingredients are sometimes precooked individually. To kill microorganisms and extend the shelf life of the feed, the ingredients are heated to high temperatures. Usually, in large-scale productions, this happens in metal tubes. Here, the feed is pressed through the tube with water and then filled into cans. During this transport, some of this liquid gets into the can of wet food.

This water – also part of the cooking process – is indicated on the labels as broth. This is particularly noticeable when dealing with additives. In the northern regions of Germany, manganese is not present in groundwater, so it is added to the production of cat food. A manufacturer with manganese in their groundwater doesn’t need to add it additionally and therefore doesn’t have to label it on the can. The hot cat food is then placed in previously sterilized cans, sealed, and labeled.

How does the smell of cat food develop?

More natural cat food varieties, which are less heavily processed industrially, also tend to have a less intense smell. They retain more of their natural aroma – that of fresh meat. The more heavily processed a cat food is during production, the stronger it often smells like cat food.

You’ll notice the difference immediately when you open a cat food in ragout consistency. Although often the same ingredients are used as in conventional cat food, it smells distinctly different. Moreover, with this type of food, there’s no way to hide anything, as the individual ingredients are easy to identify. Therefore, the raw material quality is often slightly better.

Protein denaturation

When cooking meat, the proteins in the meat are denatured. This means that the protein structure changes, resulting in a change in texture and taste. Denaturation causes the protein to lose its specific shape, which often leads to a loss of its biological activity or function. For example, cooking eggs leads to the denaturation of the protein albumin, changing it from a clear, liquid substance to a white solid. While denatured proteins don’t necessarily change their chemical composition, they do change their structure. However, in meat paste, which consists of minced, ground, or pureed meat, this denaturation occurs faster and more uniformly than with meat chunks.

Change in fat structure

The fat molecules also change when cooking meat. Some unsaturated fatty acids can oxidize, leading to a loss of omega-3 fatty acids. Meat paste, which is often cooked with additives such as oil or broth, may have a higher fat content than meat chunks cooked dry. More fat, in turn, reacts more with the other ingredients and oxidizes more strongly, which is also a reason for the typical cat food smell. Pureed products therefore smell much more unpleasant than, for example, ragout cat food.

Formation of aroma compounds

When cooking meat, new aroma compounds are formed through various chemical reactions. These aroma compounds contribute to the characteristic taste of cooked meat. Meat paste, which is more intensively processed through grinding and mixing, can have a more intense aroma formation than meat chunks that are less processed.

Formation of compounds

During cooking, new compounds can also form between the proteins and other components of the meat. These new compounds contribute to the taste and texture of the cooked meat. With meat paste, this happens much more and faster than with whole meat chunks.

(Technological) additives in the production of cat food

Commercial cat food varieties contain additives such as vitamins, minerals, and flavors. Often also preservatives, antioxidants, thickeners or binders, and colorants. Whether this is the case and how good the quality of the substances used is, cannot always be judged, as many of them do not need to be declared. These substances also change the smell and consistency of the food, so at least it’s possible to infer their use from the type of food. Many additives are suspected of promoting allergies or intolerances.

Changes in nutrient composition are inevitable during cooking

Overall, cooking meat changes the composition of nutrients and the sensory properties, both in meat paste and meat chunks. The exact degree of change depends on factors such as temperature, cooking time, liquid addition, and the type and consistency of the meat. Some nutrients are lost during cooking, while others are released, flushed out, or intensified by the cooking process.

Therefore, you should always make sure to also feed the sauce. With a pureed feed, the broth produced during cooking – and thus the nutrients leached into it – are retained. Due to the thickeners used, meat paste and water recombine into a mass. This is not the case with ragout. Although the nutrients are still in the sauce here, not every cat loves it, while others even “bathe” in it.

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Vertebral column of cats

Cats, like all mammals, have a vertebral column that is segmented into different regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal. Each segment plays a crucial role in the overall functionality and agility of felines.

What’s special about a cat’s spine?

The cat’s spine consists of more vertebrae than that of a human. Also, unlike humans, whose spinal structure is designed to support an upright posture, the feline spine is optimized for horizontal agility. Cats’ lumbar and thoracic vertebrae are more loosely connected, which provides an enhanced range of motion ideal for sprinting and leaping. Even though cats are physically able to walk on their hind legs for a short amount of time, their preferred movement is on all fours.

Functions of the cat spine

• Support: The spine provides a foundational structure for the body.
• Protection: It shields the spinal cord, a crucial part of the central nervous system.
• Flexibility: The spine’s adaptability is key to a cat’s agility, allowing for high degrees of twisting and bending essential for their dynamic movements.

Spinal regions and how many bones a cat’s spine has

The spine comprises 48 to 53 bones, accounting for about one fifth of all the bones in a cat’s skeleton. Let’s examine its sections more closely.

• A – Cervical spine (neck)
  This region consists of 7 bones, which allow for a wide range of head movements. This flexibility is critical for cats as it enhances their ability to scan their environment and aids in their predatory skills.
• B – Thoracic spine (upper back)
  Comprising 13 vertebrae, this area is rigidly connected to the ribs, which aids in stability and protects vital organs. The limited flexibility in this region is compensated by the mobility of the cervical and lumbar regions.
• C – Lumbar spine (lower back)
  The 7 lumbar vertebrae are key to the powerful muscle attachments that facilitate explosive leaps and fast running. This region’s structure supports high-speed motions and quick directional changes. The possible range a cat can twist is almost 180°!¹
• D – Sacral region
  The sacral spine’s integration with the pelvis affects the hind limbs and plays a significant role in maintaining stability while moving. There are 3 sacreal vertebra bones.
• E – Caudal vertebrae (tail)
  Cats can have between 18 and 23 caudal vertebrae, which significantly contribute to their balance and communicative abilities. The tail acts as a counterbalance during tightrope walks and aids in making sharp turns and quick direction changes.

The cat tail in detail

Anatomy of the cat tail and its functions

Other than bones, the tail consists of caudal vertebrae, joints, muscles, and nerves, intricately designed to support finely tuned movements. This structure is pivotal in maintaining equilibrium, particularly during aerial turns and while navigating narrow spaces. The further down you go, the smaller the bones become, which explains why the tip of a cat’s tail is especially flexible.

Joints, discs and muscles in a cat’s tail

Joints: The caudal vertebrae in a cat’s tail are connected by various types of joints that collectively enhance its flexibility and functional versatility. Synovial joints, which are the most prevalent throughout the tail, facilitate fluid and extensive movements essential for the tail’s agility. Cartilaginous joints, interspersed among the caudal vertebrae, offer slight flexibility and act as cushions, which are crucial for absorbing impacts during dynamic actions and fine-tuning the tail’s balance.

Muscles: Main groups involved are the sacrococcygeal and sacrocaudal muscles. These muscles allow the tail of a cat to move up and down or sway side to side, helping cats maintain their agility and express their emotions. Additionally, the caudofemoralis muscle, which connects the tail to the hind legs, aids in propelling the cat forward by pulling the thigh backwards, thus playing a crucial role in the cat’s ability to run or jump efficiently.

Intervertebral discs: These are located between the vertebrae throughout the spinal column, including the tail (caudal) vertebrae in animals that have tails. These discs are composed of a tough, fibrous outer layer called the annulus fibrosus and a soft, gelatinous center called the nucleus pulposus.The primary function of intervertebral discs is to act as shock absorbers for the spine. They allow for flexibility and movement in the spine while also cushioning the vertebrae against impacts that occur during normal activities and behaviors like jumping, running, and landing.

Nerves in a cat’s tail and how it aids in communication

Nerves: The caudal spinal nerves (coccygeal nerves) emerge from the spinal cord and extend into the tail. They are responsible for sensory innervation and movement control. Basically, the nerves give the directions to the muscles to enable controlled movements. They also make the tail sensitive to touch, temperature, and pain. When receiving a painful stimulus, they react with reflexes, such as twitching away.

Communication:

1. Scent communication: The tail contains scent glands which produce pheromones. Cats use these glands to mark territory by leaving scent trails on surfaces.
2. Visual and tactile signals: Cats also use their tails to convey a wide range of emotions and intentions through distinct movements. For example, a raised tail often indicates happiness or confidence.

For a comprehensive guide on interpreting your cat’s tail movements and understanding their communication cues, refer to our detailed article, How to Understand Your Cat. It includes an extensive list of tail movements and explains how to interpret them accurately.

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The functional significance of Jacobson’s organ

Pheromone detection with the Flehmen response

Cats use the Flehmen response a lot to check out their surroundings. When they open their mouths, like that, it helps them take in air with pheromones that go to the Jacobson’s organ. This organ picks up on the chemical signals, sending nerve impulses to the brain that can affect behaviors like mating and aggression.

Behavioral influences

• Reproductive: The organ is instrumental in detecting pheromones that trigger estrus cycles and encourage mating behaviors.
• Territorial: It plays a role in scent marking and the recognition of territorial boundaries, critical for feline social structure.
• Social: Jacobson’s organ helps in kitten-mother bonding and establishing group hierarchies by interpreting pheromones and other chemical cues.¹

Anatomical overview of Jacobson’s organ

While we cannot see Jacobson’s organ from the outside, we can still see the incisive papilla. This is the primary entry point for chemical sgnals to reach Jacobson’s organ. Once entered through incisive ducts, the scent particles reach Jacobson’s organ which is located above the roof of the mouth in the nasopalatine canal.

The organ comprises two tubular channels that run side by side, each lined with sensory epithelial cells. These cells detect and transduce the chemical signals into nerve impulses. These impulses are then relayed to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain, which interprets the signals and can trigger instinctual behaviors related to social interaction, mating, and territoriality.

This process allows cats and other animals with this organ to respond to nuanced environmental cues that are undetectable to the human senses. This user on reddit detected a little round thingy that is actually the incisive papilla.

Maybe now you understand why animals curl back their upper lip and tilt their heads when using this organ. Speaking of them, there are many other creatures in the animal kingdom making use of it.

Which other mammals have Jacobson’s organ?

Jacobson’s organ is found in many other mammals. Ungulates like sheep, goats, buffalo, and bison use it to assess mating readiness and establish social hierarchies. Odd-toed ungulates, including rhinoceroses and tapirs, also exhibit Flehmen for mating and environmental communication. In contrast, canines like dogs have a less pronounced use for it, mainly for scent investigation, while in rodents, it’s crucial for social and reproductive signaling. Humans lack a functional Jacobson’s organ, relying instead on complex social and verbal communication, indicative of an evolutionary shift away from pheromone-based cues.

Future research directions

• Genetic engineering: There’s potential for modifying pheromone detection capabilities to influence behavior profoundly.
• Pheromone-based treatments: Exploring treatments for behavioral disorders using pheromones is a promising frontier in veterinary medicine.

If you’ve gotten curious about other feline anatomy features, you should check our article about cat anatomy for beginners! Otherwise leave a comment about what you think is the most interesting fact about Jacobson’s organ.

The post Anatomy of the Jacobson’s (vomeronasal) organ appeared first on The Cat Edition.

General anatomy of cat paws

• Pads: These are the soft parts of the paw that contact the ground, made up of the digital, metacarpal (forelimb), and metatarsal (hindlimb) pads. The carpal pad, found only on the forelimbs, helps provide additional traction.
• Claws: Cats typically retract their sharp claws, sheathing them when not in use to prevent wear and allow for silent stalking
• Fur: Unless we’re looking at a hairless breed, there’s fur around and between the toes and pads.

Detailed anatomy, functions and unique features of cat paws

The pads on a cat paw

The pads of a cat’s paws serve several vital functions, including shock absorption during jumps and falls, providing traction on various surfaces, and protecting the delicate inner workings of the foot from damage. By the way, some cats have little horns growing out of their carpal pad (the highest pad on the forelimb), which is totally normal and no reason to worry.

Composition and texture

A thick, fatty tissue layer makes up the paw pads, and a pigmented skin layer, tough yet flexible, covers them. This composition allows them to absorb impacts and conform to different terrains.¹

Claws

Properties and structure of cat claws

These are what turn their delicate paws into lethal weapons: razor-sharp, curved blades on each toe. A cat can retract its claw, pulling it back to hide within the paw when not in use. This ability is thanks to the unique structure of the bones in their toes. Cats have two crucial bones in their toes, the middle and distal phalanges (think of them as the finger bones), shaped in a way that allows the claw to retract smoothly.

How cats retract and extend their claws

The actual retraction of a cat’s claws is not controlled by the typical movement muscles found in the arms. Instead, it is managed by durable, spring-like structures known as dorsal elastic ligaments.These ligaments pull the claw back passively, which means there is no muscle effort required. This mechanism allows the cat to keep its claws sharp and ready for action whenever needed. To extend their claws, cats use the tendon of the common toe extensor together with the deep flexor tendon. This action isn’t just a simple extension but a coordinated move that involves both pulling and pushing muscles at the same time.²

What cats use their claws for

Claws are essential for various behaviors including hunting, where they are used to catch and hold prey. During climbing, they hook into surfaces to provide grip. For self-defense they use their claws against predators or rivals. Removing cats’ claws, known as declawing, isn’t like taking out a nail – it involves amputating the tip of the toe. Please consider reading our article on why declawing is harmful if you are contemplating this procedure and if you want to learn why cats need their claws.

Cat paw bones and joints

A cat’s paw is composed of multiple bones including phalanges, metacarpals, and carpals. Phalanges are the toe bones, metacarpals are the mid-foot bones, and carpals are the wrist bones. These bones are interconnected by joints, which give the paw its flexibility. This flexibility allows the paw to compress during a leap and expand upon landing.

Flexibility and mobility

The unique design of a cat’s paw bones is enhanced by flexible joints and thick pads. These features allow cats to absorb significant impacts. They also enable cats to extend their reach. This maximizes the effectiveness of their jumps.

Structure and function of leg and paw muscles in cats

Cats’ paws and legs feature a complex arrangement of muscles that enhance their agility and precision in various activities. The flexor muscles under the paws and legs enable the retraction of claws to keep them sharp, while the extensor muscles on the top facilitate their extension for gripping during climbs. The interosseous muscles, located between the toe bones, allow for minute adjustments in paw posture, aiding in balance and stability.

These muscle groups collectively enhance a cat’s climbing proficiency. They enable efficient predatory actions, including quick sprints and sharp turns. Additionally, these muscles assist in thermal regulation by generating heat through activity. This muscular synergy highlights the cat’s ability to navigate and dominate its environment. It demonstrates the evolutionary finesse embodied in their anatomy.

Digitigrade locomotion – or why cats walk on tip-toes

Structure of cats’ locomotion

Cats are classified as digitigrade animals, which means they walk on their toes. This anatomical structure involves longer metacarpal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones compared to plantigrade mammals like humans, who walk on the soles of their feet. Walking on their toes increases the length of each stride and enhances the elasticity of each step, which is facilitated by the unique alignment of their leg bones.

Usage of cats’ digitigrade walk

The primary advantage of digitigrade locomotion is the increase in speed and stealth it provides. By walking on their toes, cats can move more quietly, making it easier to sneak up on prey. This posture also allows for greater extension and flexion of the limbs, contributing to a cat’s remarkable ability to leap and land with precision. The elevated stance provided by tip-toe walking also contributes to better distribution of their weight, allowing for agile and effective maneuvering through various terrains.

Soft webbing between the toes

While not as pronounced as those found in aquatic animals, the webbing between a cat’s toes is a subtle yet distinctive anatomical feature. This webbing consists of thin, flexible skin membranes that connect each of the digits on a cat’s paws. It is more visible in some breeds, such as the Sphynx, where the lack of fur makes it easier to observe, but all cats possess some degree of webbing – as do dogs and even humans.

Functional benefits

The primary function of toe webbing in cats is to provide additional support and increase the surface area of their paws. This adaptation can be particularly useful in several ways:

• Quieter movement: The increased surface area allows cats to distribute their weight more evenly and tread more softly, which is crucial for stalking prey silently.
• Swimming: Though not commonly known for their love of water, certain cat breeds that originated near water bodies or that are more inclined to swim, like the Bengal cat, benefit from webbed toes. The webbing helps them paddle more efficiently, similar to aquatic creatures.
• Climbing and stability: The webbing aids in climbing by offering a larger area to grip surfaces and by providing more stability when navigating narrow ledges or branches.
• Handling prey: Cats often use their paws to hold onto prey or toys, and the webbing can help them to keep a better grip.

Sensory Functions

Why cats have whiskers on their legs

Cats are equipped with specialized tactile hairs known as carpal whiskers, located on the backs of their legs, just above the paws. These whiskers, while shorter than the facial whiskers, are deeply embedded in the skin and connected to sensitive nerve endings. This anatomical setup allows the carpal whiskers to be highly responsive to environmental changes.

How cats use their carpal whiskers

Carpal whiskers serve critical sensory functions. During hunting, these whiskers help cats ascertain the position of their prey. Cats are known to have a blind spot under their nose where their eyes can’t focus well, so whiskers play a critical role in sensing objects that are too close to be seen clearly.³

Sweat Glands

How do cats sweat and where are there sweat glands?

Unlike many other mammals, cats possess sweat glands that are located primarily in their paws. These glands are integral to the thermoregulation process, especially since cats do not typically pant as dogs do. The sweat glands in the paws activate when the cat is overheated, stressed, or in need of cooling, releasing moisture that is visible on smooth surfaces as damp paw prints.⁴

How cats use their sweat glands

The primary function of these sweat glands is to help regulate body temperature through evaporative cooling. During warm conditions or when a cat experiences elevated stress levels, these glands provide a critical means of heat dissipation, aiding in maintaining the cat’s overall comfort and well-being.

Scent Glands

How cats leave their scent

Scent glands located within the pads of cat paws play a subtle yet vital role in feline communication. These glands secrete pheromones that are unique to each cat, allowing them to mark their territory and leave a personal signature wherever they roam.

Why cats leave their scent in their territory

The markings left by these scent glands serve as a means of non-verbal communication among cats, conveying messages related to territorial boundaries, reproductive status, and individual identity. This olfactory signaling is fundamental to the social dynamics of feline communities, helping to prevent conflicts and facilitate mating behaviors.

We hope this article about the anatomy of cat paws answered some of your questions. If you have any, leave them down below in the comments!

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Feline fine art II – Predynastic Period (until 3000 BCE)

Our journey through the ancient depiction of cats begins with an artifact from the Predynastic period. Even than, cats had been a part of domestic life for thousands of years. But it is the lion that often takes center stage. At around 3100 BCE, the Battlefield Palette showcases this wild relative of a cat, the lion. It emphasizes the prestige and power of these creatures held in the eyes of the ancient Egyptians.

Battlefield palette (ca. 3100 BCE)

The Battlefield Palette is one of the earliest known depictions of a battle from ancient Egypt. It was likely commissioned by a regional ruler before Egypt’s unification to enhance their influence. Intended for early power rituals, it portrays the aftermath of a battle. It shows a lion attacking a prisoner and vultures assaulting bound figures.

This artifact features scenes in low relief and a specific area for mixing ceremonial substances. Probably intended as an early form of hieroglyphic representation. Made of grey mudstone during the Naqada III period (circa 3150 – 3000 BC), the palette’s significance grew from a cosmetic tool to a ceremonial item. It is displayed at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.¹

Feline fine art II – Early Dynastic Period (3000 – 2675 BCE)

Lion cub (3100 – 2900 BCE)

You’re looking at a lion cub figure of almost magical 5,000 year old beauty! Carved of Quartz, what is very difficult to work with without cracking, the artisan must have great skills. Especially at this scale as the item is only about 9 inches long. Its shimmering material lends it a special beauty. It was found in a temple of the goddess Hathor which seems unusual at first as she is usually depicted as a cow. But in one legend, she was born with the face of a lioness. This makes it possible that we are looking at a depicting of her young son.²

Feline fine art II – Old Kingdom (2675 – 2130 BCE)

Statuette of a lion (ca. 2250 BCE)

This ancient red statuette from around 2250 BCE is made from Terracotta and about 16.7 inches high. It depicts a lion with a distinctive, small mane across its chest. But researchers speculate about its significance. Some suggest the mane symbolizes royalty. Akin to the lappets on a pharaoh’s headcloth, potentially linking the lion to kingly power. Others argue it represents a real lion’s mane from a time when there were still lions around Egypt. Changing climates led to lions with smaller manes, marking an adaptation to warmer weather. This piece was found in the Hierakonpolis tomb.^3,4

Feline fine art II – Middle Kingdom (1980 – 1630 BCE)

Cosmetic vessel in the shape of a cat (1990 – 1900 BCE)

This cosmetic jar, shaped like a cat, is the earliest known three-dimensional representation of the animal in Egyptian art. Crafted from travertine, commonly known as Egyptian alabaster, the jar features intricate detailing with rock-crystal eyes outlined in copper, which lend the figure a vivid expression. This portrayal contrasts with the more composed and detached depictions that emerged in later periods. The sculptor’s acute observation of the cat’s physical attributes is evident, capturing its tense and attentive demeanor. The jar measures approximately 5.5 inches cm in height.⁵

Feline fine art II – New Kingdom (1539 – 1075 BCE)

Sacrophagus of Prince Thutmose’s cat (1539 – 1292 BCE)

Thutmoses ensured that his beloved cat received only the finest in her afterlife. Her sarcophagus, crafted from limestone, was adorned with images of a lavish banquet, including three pints of wine, a goose, and an ox leg. Additionally other depictions showcased other delectable items, creating a sumptuous visual feast fitting for his cherished companion. Read more about Ta-Miu’s interesting fate on our article about history’s most famous cats.

Tomb of Nebamun, hunting scene (1400 – 1350 BCE, Thebes)

Ancient Egyptian art is well-known for its murals, reliefs, and architectural decorations, but there aren’t standalone paintings like those of Renaissance artists from the common folk. Certainly the majority of well-preserved art from tombs, temples, and palaces, were commissioned by the elite or royal patrons.

One of the tombs that actually shows scenes of various aspects of society outside of palaces and temples, is the tomb of Nebamun in Thebes. Obviously Nebamun was a scribe and not a common laborer, and wall paintings seemingly provide glimpses into the daily activities of regular people. In this mural, a cat assists him in hunting. Especially its golden eye and a successful hunt might symbolize Nebamun being blessed by the sun-god Ra. Specifically emphasizing the divine protection and celestial connection for his afterlife.

[Cat statues] engraved with the scarab and wedjat eye represent Bastet.

Sekhmet & Bastet – The Feline Powers of Egypt

Ostracon cat and mouse (1295 – 1075 BCE)

This limestone piece shows a humorous scene inked onto its surface, where a cat stands upright, fanning and offering a duck or goose to a mouse seated like royalty on a decorative stool. The mouse, wearing a long skirt and with a flower on her head, holds a dish in one hand and in the other, a fish bone or flower and a piece of cloth – items often seen with pharaohs, hinting at a playful nod to royalty.

This ostracon could be seen as a lighthearted satire or perhaps an illustration of a tale now lost to us, subtly poking fun at societal or royal norms by reversing the roles of predator and prey. Despite some wear, its condition remains good, making it a captivating snapshot of ancient Egyptian humor and creativity. This ostracon is one of several still existing today. We display just the few here, as there are numerous other pieces we want to show you, each completely unique.⁶

Ostracon with Pharaoh spearing a lion (1180 – 1070 BCE)

Contrary to the just witnessed humor, here you see a not yet identified pharaoh who’s ending the life of an enemy of egypt, represented by a lion. It contains a blessful saying as well.⁷

The slaughter of every foreign land, the Pharaoh – may he live, prosper, and be healthy.

– unknown artist

Feline fine art II – Third Intermediate Period (1075 – 656 BCE)

Ring with cat and kittens (ca. 980 BCE)

This striking ring from ancient Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period is made of faience, a glazed ceramic material renowned for its bright, glass-like finish and vibrant colors. Depicting a cat with its kittens next to papyrus plants – imagery of a marsh – it serves as a talisman of the Faraway Goddess myth. In the story, the goddess’ absence disrupts balance, and her return signifies the restoration of order. The intricate faience work, capturing the fine details of the mythological scene, reflects the period’s peak of artistic craftsmanship. Worn during festivals, this ring was a celebratory piece invoking the deities’ blessings and the harmony of maat, the principle of cosmic order.⁸

Feline fine art II – Late Period (664 – 332 BCE)

Gayer-Anderson cat

Sculptures like this primarily represent female cats and are most commonly associated with Bastet, a goddess whose worship dates back to the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675 – 2130 BCE). Initially lioness-headed and embodying the sun’s aggressive power, Bastet evolved to embody the gentler characteristics of domestic cats, such as fertility and protective nature. These bronze statuettes, therefore, not only represent the animal itself but also symbolize the protective and nurturing qualities attributed to the goddess Bastet.⁹

Some statues like this served as containers for mummified cats who were put into the tombs of their owners to give them companionship.¹⁰ The scarab beetles on her forehead and chest stand for rebirth while the Wedjat amulet is a sign of protection. Today very tiny versions of them are sold as souvenirs to tourists in Egypt.

Cat statuette as container for a mummified cat

As you can see, even this container for a mummified cat has a wadjet eye carved into the chest, symbolizing the goddess Bastet. Bronze containers like this and later on, containers of linen, would be donated to her temples at Bubastis and Saqqara (and other places).¹⁰

Cat bronze votive statue with kittens

This art piece is a bronze sculpture featuring a mother cat reclining with her four kittens on a semi-circular bronze base that fits into a wooden base. The mother cat is depicted in a relaxed pose with varied leg positions and a slightly tilted head, as one kitten climbs toward her neck and three others nurse. The sculpture is detailed with a necklace marked by a potential Wedjat pendant. Not only that but also the inscription on the base Bastet, given life leads us to the assumption that we’re looking at a Bastet figurine here.

Though the bronze shows some light patches and minor scratches, it is generally well-preserved. The wooden base, originally black, shows some wear and loss of paint. This composition stands out due to its asymmetry, a notable deviation from the typical symmetry of three-dimensional Egyptian art, making this a truly unique piece of art.¹¹

We hope you enjoyed this journey to ancient Egypt. Be assured, there are tons of fascinating cat art more, so let us know if you want another article like this in the comments. And if you find it interesting, share this one with your friends!

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Why calories matter in cat food

First and foremost: Health

Both underfeeding and overfeeding can lead to health problems. Underfeeding can lead to malnutrition while overfeeding can result in obesity and its complications. By comparing the calories in cat food, you can find an excellent starting point for your darling’s perfect diet.

Quality Assurance

High-quality food usually provides more calories than food with less quality. Even though we have to say you need to compare foods within the same type. Comparing wet foods with other wet foods and dry foods with other dry foods can give hints as to which one has higher quality ingredients.

Cost-Effectiveness

Understanding the calorie content can also help you evaluate the cost-effectiveness of different cat foods. Some foods may seem more expensive upfront but are actually more calorie-dense, requiring smaller portions to meet your cat’s needs, potentially saving money in the long run.

How to prepare for comparing cat food calories

In the US, cat food labels may not always present calorie information in the most user-friendly way. You’re accustomed to seeing calories per cup or can, but for meaningful comparisons between different cat foods, grams are the way to go. This preference stems from the fact that researchers base most of their formulas on this measurement, making it the standard for calculating energy content in cat food. This guide will prepare you to use grams as your standard unit, ensuring accurate and useful comparisons between different cat foods.

Not only do you need to gain a basic understanding of what your fluffball needs, but you’ll also want to monitor her habits and body weight. This is the only way you will be able to tell if the amount of calories you are feeding is enough or too much/too little. Be aware that if you want to track this, you need to include all kinds of treats your cat gets. Here we will give you every piece of information you need in an easily understandable way.

The amount of calories needed depends on your cat’s energy level, age, breed, size, weight and activity level. Healthy cats that grew up as kittens with wet food and not with a lack of food usually have developed a good feeling of satiety. They can often decide for themselves how much they want to eat. If they were active for a day, this can also lead to more food. Sick cats, or cats that can’t, need your help. If your cat still gains too much weight, use our formula or get help from a cat nutritionist. These are preferable to a veterinarian because of their specialized training.

How to compare calories in different cat foods

1. Gather nutritional Information

For each cat food you’re considering, gather the nutritional information, including moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude ash, and crude fiber contents. This information is typically found on the product’s label or its website.

2. Calculate the Metabolizable Energy (ME) for each food

• Calculate the carbohydrate content (NFE) of each food.
• Determine the Gross Energy (GE) for each.
• Calculate the Energy Digestibility (ED).
• Find the Digestible Energy (DE) for each.
• Calculate the Metabolizable Energy (ME) for each cat food option (in kcal per 100g).

For a detailed example and explanations of terms, you can head to our article about the best formula to calculate energy in cat foods.

3. Compare ME Values

With the ME calculated for each cat food, you can start to compare the energy content. This comparison will reveal which food offers more or less energy per 100 grams, helping you to make informed decisions about which food meets your and your cat’s requirements best.

Example of comparing two cat foods

Let’s say you’ve calculated the ME for two different cat foods, and you got:

• Cat Food A: ME = 113.7 kcal/100g
• Cat Food B: ME = 88.9 kcal/100g

For our 4 kilogram (8.8 pounds) cat, her requirement is 216 calories a day. If you want to find the energy requirement for your cat, you can do so with the table we mentioned before. Let’s use the following formula:

Your cat’s energy requirement (kcal/100g) / ME (kcal/100g) x 100

Cat Food A:
ME Cat Food A = 216 kcal/100g / 113.7 kcal/100g x 100

For Cat Food A (with an ME of 113.7 calories per 100 grams), you would need approximately 190 grams (6.7 ounces) of food per day.

Cat Food B:
ME Cat Food B = 216 kcal/100g / 88.9 kcal/100g x 100

For Cat Food B (with an ME of 88.9 calories per 100 grams), you would need approximately 243 grams (8.6 ounces) of food per day.

4. Compare price efficiency

Find the costs/kg, or costs/lb on the product’s price label or website. We’ll need to convert those to cost/g or cost/oz to see how much each food for our kitty costs each day. We’ll include how to get from ounces to grams as well.

1. Convert prices. Divide the price per kg, lb, or oz by the corresponding factor:

• There are 1,000 grams in a kilogram.
• There are 16 ounces in one pound.
• There are approx. 435.592 grams in one pound.
• There are approx. 28.35 grams in an ounce.

For Food A priced at $6.39 per pound or $14.1 per kilogram:

From price per pound to price per ounce
$6.39/oz / 16 = $0.40/oz
From price per kilogram to price per gram
$14.1/kg / 1,000 = $0.0141/g
From price per ounce price per gram
$0.40/oz / 28.35 grams = $0.0141/g

For Food B priced at $5.90 per pound or $13.10 per kilogram:

From price per pound to price per ounce
$5.90/oz / 16 = $0,37/oz
From price per kilogram to price per gram
$13.10/kg / 1,000 = $0.0131/g
From price per ounce price per gram
$0.37/oz / 28.35 grams = $0.0131/g

Food B is slightly cheaper per gram (and ounce) than Food A! BUT that’s not the whole story – you still need to multiply this value by how much of the food your cat needs daily (remember her daily food requirement).

2. Calculate the daily cost for each food. Multiply the cost per gram by the daily required grams:

Food A:
For using grams: $0.0141 x 190 g = $2.68/day
For using ounces: $0.40 x 6.7 oz = $2.68/day

Food B:
For using grams: $0.0131 x 243 g = $3.18
For using ounces: $0.37 x 8.6 oz = $3.18

The price of Cat Food A is $2.68 per day while Cat Food B costs $3.18 per day.

Cat Food B, while slightly cheaper per gram or ounce requires bigger amounts to meet the daily calorie requirement, so it ends up with a higher daily cost. Cat Food A provides more value for the price due to its higher energy density.

The priority is to ensure dietary variety for your cat, emphasizing the importance of providing a balanced nutrition that caters to all of her nutritional needs. Calculating the calories of cat foods helps prevent dietary deficiencies and promotes overall health. Alongside this, it’s crucial to feed your cat the right amount of food, aiming to maintain her optimal body weight and health status. The specific amount required can vary greatly, depending on factors such as her age, weight, neuter status, activity level, and any specific health concerns she may have.

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